Zuccari Brothers
Taddeo (1529-1566) and Federico (1542-1609) Zuccaro reflected transitional artists that were shifting from Late Mannerism to the emergence of the Baroque. The Zuccari brothers originated from a small city outside of Urbino, a region known for its cultural achievement and younger artists, but eventually left for Rome. Though Taddeo had a short career, he gained the highest level of commissions with papal patronage. Federico assisted his brother in projects until 1563, while traveling widely and returning to Rome.
Federico Zuccaro, Taddeo in the Belvedere Court in the Vatican, Drawing the Laocöon, ca. 1595, Late Mannerist-Early Baroque, pen and brown ink, brush with brown wash, over black chalk and touches of red chalk, 6 7/8″ x 16 3/4″, J. Paul Getty Museum
Federico Zuccaro’s drawing of his brother Taddeo reflects the importance of Rome as a school for artists, relying upon the work of ancient and modern masters. As Federico illustrates a hagiography of his older brother, he also includes ancient and modern works, such as the Laocöon, a work influential for High Renaissance artists with the emotional, expressive figures, and the Apollo Belvedere. Federico includes two contrasting, sculptural choices that artists could choose to model when depicting figures, along with sculptures that were included in the Vatican courtyard collection. As Taddeo is depicted drawing in the Belvedere Court, the view looks out upon a modern setting of the Vatican courtyard, which included references to the Raphael interior. Federico offers a view of Rome with dual elements of the ancient and modern world, as the task of the artist is to model their work upon these masters. The medium of drawing paper represents by the sixteenth-century the process of drawing expanding to preparatory processes and educational tools, ultimately leading to the institutionalization of art through the academies. Federico became the first director of Accademia di S. Luca in the 1590s, restructured with the support of Cardinal Federico Borromeo. Federico’s treatise, L’Idea, 1607, discusses theoretical bases for training artists and the task of the academy. The Zuccari brothers, with the work of Federico, represent an approach to the Counter-Reformation, with an academic approach and interest in classical models to create a readable work for the faithful.
Taddeo and Federico Zuccaro, The Conversion of Saul, 1557-1566, Late Mannerist-Early Baroque, fresco, Cappella Frangipani, S. Marcello al Corso, Rome
The Conversion of Saul reflects the Counter-Reformation principles of reinforcing the authority of the Pope, and the emergence of the Early Baroque style. The fresco was begun under Taddeo, but completed by Federico, depicting a popular subject for artists. The reference to Saul, or St. Paul supports the authority given to the Pope, derived from St. Peter and Paul. Contemporary artists often depicted Petrian and Paulian references with the strong connection of name saints to reinforce the authority descended to the Pope, emphasizing the power of the Church during the Counter-Reformation. The compositional crowded mode derives its inspiration from Christ in the center of the two-tier composition, represented by a visualization of Christ as in Michelangelo’s model of Conversion of Saul, 1542-45, fresco (Pauline Chapel, Vatican), contrasting with Ludovico Carracci’s The Conversion of St. Paul, 1587-89, oil on canvas, (Pinacoteca Nazionale, Bologna) which depicts an ineffable Christ through light. Though the Zuccari brothers utilize light to indicate illumination and spirituality, they still maintain the physical depiction of Christ, contrasting to the later depictions of Caravaggio. The Zuccari brothers reference High Renaissance models, such as Michelangelo with the expressive, twisting bodies, which the viewer was meant to recognize, an element of Late Mannerism as artists would directly quote model artists. The brothers also show an interest in naturalism and observation of physical forms, shifting from the distorted proportions of Mannerism to the natural reality of the Baroque, emphasized by the readability and straightforward delivery of religion coming from the Council of Trent.
Artists from northern centers, like the Zuccari brothers, revived Venetian artists, such as Titian, and Correggio, applying a different mode of painting with layers of color, apart from structured design, disegno, of Rome compositions. Northern artists studying Correggio, such as Jupiter and Io, ca. 1530, oil on canvas (Kunsthistorisches Museum) adopted the atmospheric quality that enhances the sense of the body and offers an emotional response, combined with disegno. Artists, like Correggio, Raphael, and Michelangelo became associated with certain themes, such as grace or intense, emotional character, as contemporary artists would choose specific artists for models.
De Girolami Cheney, Liana. “Zuccaro.” Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordartonline.com.libproxy.temple.edu/subscriber/article/grove/art/T093663pg2, 5 February, 2013.
Barocci
Federico Barocci, Deposition, 1567-1569, Late Mannerist-Early Baroque, oil on panel, Cathedral, Perugia
Federico Barocci (1535-1612) focused upon the responsive quality for the viewer when examining the doctrines of the Council of Trent, as illustrated in Deposition. Barocci, like the Zuccari brothers originated outside of Rome, and represent the transitional artists between Later Mannerism and the emerging Baroque. After returning to work, Barocci was influenced by Correggio and Titian, bringing together two directions of disegno and colore. Deposition illustrates the colorism of the Early Baroque, which also influenced the Zuccari. The figures in the altar work interact with one another, including the use of an atmospheric and glazed quality in the coloring, an element derived from Correggio and Titian. The use of disegno and colore departs from the artificiality of Mannerism, and instead engages an emotional level of response that signals the emerging dramatic intent of the Baroque and the straightforward manner of the Counter-Reformation doctrines.
Caravaggio’s Early Genre Works
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio’s (1571-1610) early work represents the development of his dramatic use of light, emphasizing the naturalism that defined the Early Baroque. Caravaggio’s career consisted of early training in his native Lombardy, leading to northern Italian pictorial traditions of dramatic light affecting his work when arriving in Rome, possibly in 1592-93. His early work includes still lifes, musicians, and half-length figures. Compared to his contemporaries, Caravaggio would avoid the preparatory drawing process and work alla prima, directly on canvas, instead of refining the viewed nature into an idealized form (Harris, 34-35).
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Fortune Teller, c. 1594-95, Early Baroque, oil on canvas, 39″ x 51 1/2″, Louvre, Paris
Caravaggio’s Fortune Teller represents his early genre work emphasizing dramatic narrative during the 1590s. The gypsy girl serves as the fortune teller, while stealing the ring of her customer. As Caravaggio utilizes northern Italian themes and is inspired by parables of deceit from Netherlandish works, he distinguishes his work toward the Early Baroque with the dramatic, shaft of light. The use of a direct, dramatic light in the development of his chiaroscuro technique reflects Caravaggio’s Early Baroque tendency of naturalism, shifting from the artificiality of the previous Mannerism. The anecdotal genre scene with a contemporary subject, as seen with the modern dress, reflects the development of his dramatic narrative, while visualizing themes in a contemporary context (GOA).
Gash, John. “Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da.” Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordartonline.com.libproxy.temple.edu/subscriber/article/grove/art/T013950, 5 February, 2013.
Held, Julius S. and Posner, Donald. 17th and 18th Century Art: Baroque, Painting, Sculpture, Architecture. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1971.
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Basket of Fruit, c. 1598-1601, Patron: Cardinal Federico Borromeo, oil on canvas, 310 x 470mm, Biblioteca Ambrosiana, Milan
Caravaggio’s Basket of Fruit signifies the emergence of still life as a new genre during the Baroque and the rise of naturalism. Though Caravaggio worked in the shop of Cavaliere Cesare d’Arpino by painting flowers and fruits in his studio, the Basket of Fruit was painted later (Held and Posner, 77). Still life as a new genre of painting reflected the new empiricism during the Baroque, as knowledge became based upon sense-experience (Martin, 60). Instead of the Mannerist artificiality, artists, like Caravaggio, began to observe nature, resulting in the trompe-l’oeil realism of the work. Caravaggio’s reliance upon natural observation is seen with a reinforcing of the imperfections of the still life, such as the worm holes and shriveled leaves, symbolizing the decay of living things (Martin, 62-63). Caravaggio, similar to his contemporaries, adopted the use of still life to shift away from the idealism of previous artists and rely upon the natural realism of observation.
Held, Julius S. and Posner, Donald. 17th and 18th Century Art: Baroque, Painting, Sculpture, Architecture. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1971.
Martin, John Rupert. Baroque. New York: Harper & Row. 1977.
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Bacchus, 1595-96, Early Baroque, Patron: Cardinal Francesco Maria del Monte, oil on canvas, 37 3/8″ x 33 1/2″, Uffizi, Florence
Caravaggio’s Bacchus focuses upon the Baroque method of bridging between the work and viewer, while including heightened realism. During Caravaggio’s early career, Cardinal Francesco Maria del Monte became interested in his work, leading to a central patronage in Caravaggio’s life beginning in 1596-97. In the 1590s, Caravaggio was frequently painting half-length pictures of men in his genre works. In Bacchus, the god is uncharacteristically alone, and appears to be seducing the viewer with the gesture of offering the red wine and fingering the black bow at his waist (Harris, 35). Caravaggio places the objects up against the picture plane, further emphasizing the Baroque element of involving the viewer in the space. The focus upon heightened realism appears in Caravaggio’s early work as well, seen with the pale skinny and ruddy hand recording naturalism, along with the dish of rotten fruit, shifting from idealization of the previous period. Caravaggio utilizes realism, often in his early work, to describe anecdotal messages, such as with the rotten fruit paired with Bacchus as a warning about lust and gluttony (Harris, 36). To also demonstrate his skills as a painter, Caravaggio chooses to depict both the human figure and a naturalistic still life, as he reconstructs reality through the reliance upon details. Bacchus illustrates the early emergence of Caravaggio’s acknowledgement of the viewer and the naturalism of appearance.
Gash, John. “Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da.” Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordartonline.com.libproxy.temple.edu/subscriber/article/grove/art/T013950, 5 February, 2013.
Harris, Ann Sutherland. Seventeenth-Century Art & Architecture, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. 2008.
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Boy Bitten by a Lizard, c. 1594, Early Baroque, oil on canvas, 26″ x 19″, National Gallery, London
Caravaggio’s Boy Bitten by a Lizard demonstrates the Baroque emphasis upon the dramatic moment and use of light. The work was painted during Caravaggio’s early career in Rome, resulting in two versions, possibly a self-portrait. The young man is bitten by a lizard hiding behind the flowers and fruit, as Caravaggio accentuates the naturalism of the setting through the water in the vase moving. The dramatic moment of the bite is further emphasized by the startled emotion upon the man’s face. Caravaggio’s effects of light are seen early with the diagonal shaft across the back wall, the effect of studio based naturalism (Grove DOA). The subject matter and depiction possibly related to Roman statuary with the drapery, or a specific print from Cavalier d’Arpino’s shop (Vodret, 46). The genre work components reference to vanitas, as Caravaggio’s dramatic moment alludes to immediate death without warning, or death as a consequence after gratification of the senses, the lizard becoming associated with negative connotations of death, lust, or pleasure echoed in the roses and cherries (Vodret, 46). Caravaggio heightens the dramatic moment through the use of light, developing in his later work to encompass the divine.
Gash, John. “Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da.” Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordartonline.com.libproxy.temple.edu/subscriber/article/grove/art/T013950, 5 February, 2013.
Vodret, Rossella. Caravaggio. Milan: Silvana Editoriale Spa, 2010.
Caravaggio Contarelli Chapel
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Calling of St. Matthew, 1599-1600, Early Baroque, oil on canvas, 10′ 6 1/2″ x 11′ 2,” Contarelli Chapel, S. Luigi dei Francesi, Rome
Caravaggio’s canvases for the Contarelli Chapel characterized his use of light in relation to the divine and drama, while relying upon realism. Caravaggio was commissioned to paint two large canvases for the Contarelli Chapel for the French patron, Matteu Cointrel, Caravaggio’s first public commission. With the Calling of St. Matthew, Caravaggio utilizes the technique of tenebrism, as most objects remain in the shadow and few are illuminated in order to provide emphasis on the immediacy of the moment and the divine calling. The illumination of light coming from the right corresponds to the daylight entering the chapel from a window above the altar, which involves the space of the viewer to be closer to the divine. The light within the painting represents divine will, emphasizing Christ’s gesture of calling Matthew, counting money. The direction of light leads the viewer toward Matthew, while dividing the composition with the heightened contrast provided by cella light, a single, strong light (Held and Posner, 80). Through the use of light, Caravaggio juxtaposes temporal and eternal, sin and apostolic mission through darkness and light (Martin, 58). Caravaggio also relies upon naturalism to bring the biblical event into the earthly world of the viewer, as seen with the modern dress of Matthew’s companions. Caravaggio was possibly influenced by St. Ignatius of Loyola’s Spiritual Exercises, 1548, as Loyola describes the “experience of the senses to give reality to the scenes to be contemplated” (Martin, 54). To involve the viewer, Caravaggio depends upon the light and dramatic intent. The Counter-Reformation’s need to reinforce the faithful and the power of the church led to Baroque artists, like Caravaggio, to depict biblical events with human experience, involving the viewer in the encounter of the divine.
Gash, John. “Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da.” Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordartonline.com.libproxy.temple.edu/subscriber/article/grove/art/T013950, 5 February, 2013.
Harris, Ann Sutherland. Seventeenth-Century Art & Architecture, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. 2008.
Held, Julius S. and Posner, Donald. 17th and 18th Century Art: Baroque, Painting, Sculpture, Architecture. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1971.
Martin, John Rupert. Baroque. New York: Harper & Row. 1977.
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Martyrdom of St. Matthew, 1599-1602, Early Baroque, oil on canvas, 10′ 6 1/2″ x 11′ 2,” Contarelli Chapel, S. Luigi dei Francesi, Rome
Caravaggio’s other panel in the Contarelli chapel included the Martyrdom of St. Matthew, which illustrated his awareness and use of light for dramatic action and naturalism. The scene depicts the assassination of Matthew, as his murderer is dressed in a loincloth, holding Matthew’s right wrist in hand. Matthew’s arms are spread out to relate to the crucified Christ (Harris, 38). The emotional drama of the various figures, such as the fleeing child and men retreating from the event, which includes a self-portrait of Caravaggio, is directed through the use of light. The illumination of the scene derives from a lamp placed above the models, a common practice of Caravaggio who was aware that lighting emphasized the three-dimensional, ultimately the realistic appearance of his models. The illumination on the left leads the viewer across the various actions of the figures, leading to the divine will echoed through light, as the angel hands Matthew his palm of martyrdom. Caravaggio’s naturalism involves the modern and biblical costume, brining the biblical event into the contemporary world of the viewer. The emotional drama of the moment, echoed through the light, continues the Baroque characteristic of involving the viewer in Counter-Reformation doctrine.
Gash, John. “Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da.” Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordartonline.com.libproxy.temple.edu/subscriber/article/grove/art/T013950, 5 February, 2013.
Harris, Ann Sutherland. Seventeenth-Century Art & Architecture, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. 2008.
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Inspiration of St. Matthew, 1st version, 1602, Early Baroque, oil on canvas, 7′ 4″ x 5′ 10,” Destroyed, formerly Gemaldegalerie, Berlin
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Inspiration of St. Matthew, 2nd version, 1602, oil on canvas, 9′ 8″ x 6′ 5″, S. Luigi dei Francesi, Rome
Caravaggio’s Inspiration of St. Matthew with the two versions represents the controversial nature of his naturalism. The first version included St. Matthew with his legs crossed, his left foot projecting beyond the picture plane. The scene also included an angle guiding the saint’s hand, creating the appearance of Matthew as illiterate, though Caravaggio’s intent was divine inspiration (Harris, 40-41). The first version was criticized for lacking the appearance of a saint, emphasized by the dirty left foot projecting toward the viewer, a characteristic of heightened realism. In the second version, Caravaggio represents Matthew receiving dictation from the angel, as the dramatic scene is illustrated through the flourishing of the robes. Matthew’s feet remain away from the picture plane, but the stool Matthew kneels upon is placed upon the edge of the platform, creating a shadow beyond the picture plane (Harris, 41). Though Caravaggio’s naturalism was meant to involve the faithful in the biblical scene, his heightened realism and truth to detail was controversial for the Church.
Harris, Ann Sutherland. Seventeenth-Century Art & Architecture, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. 2008.
Caravaggio, Cesari Chapel
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Conversion of St. Paul, c. 1601, Early Baroque, Patron: Tiberio Cesari, oil on canvas, 7′ 6″ x 5′ 8,” Cerasi Chapel, Sta. Maria del Popolo, Rome
Caravaggio continues his use of light as a divine presence in The Conversion of St. Peter. In the early 1600s, Caravaggio continued working on altarpieces for side chapels in churches and easel painting for private collectors. The work in the Cerasi chapel included the use of hanging lamp for both works, creating a dramatic lighting. The main figures, including Peter, are in centralized light in a dark stable, creating the effect of projecting them toward the viewer (Grove DOA). Peter’s arms are thrown back toward the picture plane, as the light of his conversion, or divine presence of Christ is represented through the intangible (Grove DOA). With the light projecting upon Peter and the arms into the picture plane, the viewer becomes involved in the drama, a further emphasis upon Counter-Reformation doctrines. There is less physical action, compared to Ludovico Carracci’s Conversion, but Caravaggio underlines the psychological turmoil of man during conversion (Harris, 42). Caravaggio continues his reliance upon naturalism, through the observation of nature, such as through the depiction of the horse. Instead of including multiple figures, like Annibale Carraci’s neighboring altarpiece, Caravaggio maintains the drama through limited figures.
Gash, John. “Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da.” Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordartonline.com.libproxy.temple.edu/subscriber/article/grove/art/T013950, 5 February, 2013.
Harris, Ann Sutherland. Seventeenth-Century Art & Architecture, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. 2008.
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, The Crucifixion of St. Peter, 1604-05, Early Baroque, Patron: Tiberio Cesari, oil on canvas, 91″ x 69″, Cerasi Chapel, S.M. del Popolo
Caravaggio’s The Crucifixion of St. Peter returns to the involvement of the viewer in the dramatic moment. St. Peter is about to be raised upon the cross, but turns to address the crowd, connecting the space of the viewer into the picture. The cross becomes a symbol of redemption and focal point, as the raising of the cross also relates to the construction of the Church, which Christ endowed to Peter. The stone slab at the bottom references the name of Peter, in Italian, the word for stone. The dramatic light radiating upon Peter heightens the dramatic moment, as other figures remain in darkness, a Baroque element of using light to create an emotive effect and emotional drama.
Harris, Ann Sutherland. Seventeenth-Century Art & Architecture, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. 2008.
Caravaggio, Doubting Thomas
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Doubting Thomas, 1602-1603, Early Baroque, Patron: Vicenzo Giustiniani, oil on canvas, 42 1/8″ x 57 1/2,” Neues Palais, Potsdam
Caravaggio’s Doubting Thomas emphasizes the dramatic light and religious subject matter, while involving the naturalism of the common man. The scene, inspired by the Gospel of St. John, illustrates Thomas who doubted the reappearance of Christ after the resurrection, leading to Christ guiding Thomas’s hand to his open wound. Caravaggio heightens the dramatic moment of Thomas and the other apostles’ realization by focusing upon the physical reality of the scene and the light, underlining the divine presence and the moment of drama. Christ becomes enveloped in full light as a symbol of his resurrection, contrasting with the earthly appearance of the apostles. The tangible and physical presence of Christ is also illustrated with his robe showing his thigh (Grove DOA). The work demonstrates a focus upon touch, further emphasizing Caravaggio’s naturalism that echoed the tangible. Characteristic of other Caravaggio works, the setting remains vague, as the scene relies upon the dramatic moment as figures are composed around a focal point. Caravaggio was influenced by the teachings of the Roman reformer, St. Philip Neri (1515-1595), who discussed the “low church,” which was based upon humility and social equality with the understanding of the common man (Held and Posner, 79). The emphasis upon the common man resulted in realistic models to heighten the naturalism, while maintaining a “spiritual dignity” (Held and Posner, 79). Caravaggio utilizes light to gain an “immediacy of dramatic impact” during a specific moment and reliance upon physical touch (Grove DOA).
Gash, John. “Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da.” Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordartonline.com.libproxy.temple.edu/subscriber/article/grove/art/T013950, 5 February, 2013.
Held, Julius S. and Posner, Donald. 17th and 18th Century Art: Baroque, Painting, Sculpture, Architecture. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1971.
Vodret, Rossella. Caravaggio. Milan: Silvana Editoriale Spa, 2010.
Caravaggio, Supper at Emmaus
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Supper at Emmaus, 1601, Early Baroque, Patron: Ciriaco Mattei, oil on canvas, 55 1/2″ x 77, “National Gallery, London
Caravaggio’s Supper at Emmaus illustrates the use of dramatic light when depicting a religious scene, while involving the viewer in space. Christ sits at the table with his disciples, revealing his identity at the table. Caravaggio demonstrates his skill at foreshortening, while displaying still life skills, though the autumn fruits do not match up with the Easter setting of the scene. The dramatic lighting heightens the moment of revelation, a characteristic of the Baroque, through the intensified shadows of chiaroscuro. Caravaggio involves the realism of foreshortening through Christ’s extended hand toward the viewer and the apostle’s arm span of surprise projecting toward depth (Grove DOA). The arms further emphasize the “coextensive space,” an element of the Baroque that involved the viewer into the space of the work, leading to the viewer present at the intervention of the divinity (Martin, 157). Caravaggio’s involvement of the viewer related to Counter-Reformation doctrines of connecting the viewer to the divine experience.
Gash, John. “Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da.” Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordartonline.com.libproxy.temple.edu/subscriber/article/grove/art/T013950, 5 February, 2013.
Martin, John Rupert. Baroque. New York: Harper & Row. 1977.
Carvaggio, Judith Beheading Holofernes
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Judith Beheading Holofernes, 1599, Early Baroque, Patron: Costa family (Ottavio Costa), oil on canvas, 57″ x 77,” Galleria Nazionale d’Arte Antica, Palazzo Barberini, Rome
Judith Beheading Holofernes represents Caravaggio’s commitment to naturalism when depicting drama, and ultimately his association with the Counter-Reformation. The scene illustrates the Old Testament event of Judith, the heroine, beheading King Nebuchadnezzar’s general, Holofernes, in order to save her people, as the old woman is ready to catch the head. Caravaggio heightens the drama of the scene through the sharp contrasts of light and dark, chiaroscuro. He focuses upon the dramatic moment of life and death for Holofernes, as Judith is in the act of beheading. The extension of the rim of the truncated neck creates a dramatic scene, while creating a realistic Judith as she pulls the head toward her (Vodret, 93). Caravaggio further emphasizes the realism of the beheading through the wound spurting, connecting to the observation of nature. The dramatic moment is represent through the light upon Judith, which also illustrates the divine power that moves Judith (C., 92). The Counter-Reformation reinforced the idea of divine power acting through humans to conquer evil, in the case of the Church, the Lutheran heresy (Vodret, 93).
Vodret, Rossella. Caravaggio. Milan: Silvana Editoriale Spa, 2010.
Caravaggio, Death of the Virgin
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Death of the Virgin, c. 1601-02, Early Baroque, oil on canvas, 12′ 1,” Louvre, Paris
Caravaggio’s Death of the Virgin returns to the controversial nature of his naturalism when depicting biblical events. The work was intended for the chapel belonging to Laerzio Cherubini in S.M. della Scala, though the painting was rejected. Caravaggio shifts from the traditional depiction of the Virgin to include a realistic interpretation. The bedclothes are not pulled up to the Virgin’s chest, along with her arms not folded. Caravaggio also depicts the bare feet of the grieving apostles and Virgin, relating to the Church belonging to the Discalced (barefoot) Carmelites that treated “fallen” women (Harris, 45). The use of light directs the viewer’s attention to the focal point, as seen with the baldheads catching light to create a diagonal to the Virgin. The Baroque use of light become central to retelling the biblical event through intangible presences and the compositional direction. The controversial nature of the work continued with the Virgin’s feet extended beyond the bed, and her skirt pulled up to expose her feet, along with the uncombed hair (Harris, 46). Caravaggio removes the Virgin from the previous idealized versions to a naturalistic depiction of a female, possibly showing her before the body was attended to. The work became criticized for depicting the Virgin as the deathbed of an ordinary woman, instead of the traditional icon (Harris, 46).
Harris, Ann Sutherland. Seventeenth-Century Art & Architecture, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. 2008.
Caravaggio, The Taking of Christ
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, The Taking of Christ, 1602, Early Baroque, Patron: Ciriaco Mattei, oil on canvas, 53″ x 67,” National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin
Caravaggio’s The Taking of Christ represents the heightened dramatic scene that characterized the Baroque style. The scene is originally told in four Gospels, but Caravaggio encapsulates the painting into three main events in one dramatic scene, Judas’s betrayal, the capture of Christ, and the apostles’ escape. The dramatic moment is illustrated through the movement and the parallel gestures, such as Judas embracing Christ while betraying him (Vodret, 126). Christ appears calm as emphasized by the light, while the other emotional expressions represent inner struggle (Vodret, 126). Caravaggio includes himself in the paint as the man hold in the lantern, in search of God (Vodret, 126). The dramatic moment of including three events into one scene creates a straightforward manner of retelling the event for a Counter-Reformation audience.
Vodret, Rossella. Caravaggio. Milan: Silvana Editoriale Spa, 2010.
Caravaggio, Entombment
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Entombment, 1603-04, Early Baroque, oil on canvas, 9′ 9″ x 6′ 7,” Pinacoteca, Vatican Museums, Rome
Caravaggio’s Entombment represents the use of dramatic gesture and light to emphasize allusion. The work was intended for the Vittrici Chapel, dedicated to the Pieta. The six figures, which include Mary Magdalene, St. John, Nicodemus, and the Virgin Mary, bring Christ’s body into the tomb. The stone slab of the tomb itself becomes included into the viewer’s space through perspective, an example of Caravaggio’s continuing coextensive space. The six figures create a descending arc toward the tomb, leading the viewer as a teaching tool of the biblical event. All of the figures are composed except Magdalene, with the upraised arms. The raised arms allude to the crucifixion, while representing the climax of grief and future resurrection (Grove DOA). Caravaggio’s captures the dramatic moment of the upraised arms to heighten the realism of grief. The canvas was placed above the area as the priest raised the Host, reinforce the meaning of the ritual as the viewer related the scene to the act (Harris, 47). Caravaggio utilizes his characteristic dramatic lighting of illuminating the central figures and the remaining darkness, ultimately to reconsider the biblical event through the senses.
Gash, John. “Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da.” Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordartonline.com.libproxy.temple.edu/subscriber/article/grove/art/T013950, 5 February, 2013.
Harris, Ann Sutherland. Seventeenth-Century Art & Architecture, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. 2008.
Caravaggio’s Later Years
Caravaggio’s flee from Rome led to a constant travel from 1606-1609, from Naples, Malta, and Sicily. His works during the period consisted of bold foreshortenings and dark backgrounds to avoid the viewer reaching into depth. The Sicilian canvases consisted of empty space and greater perspectival depth.
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, The Seven Works of Mercy, 1606-07, Early Baroque, Patron: Cofraternity of the Pio Monte della Misericordia, oil on canvas, 153″ x 102, ” Pio Monte della Misericordia, Naples
Caravaggio’s The Seven Works of Mercy continues naturalist principles in a scene of dramatic movement. The work, for the high altar of the Pio Monte della Misericordia in Naples, represents the Counter-Reformation doctrine of good acts saving the soul. The iconography of the Madonna of Mercy with the seven works of corporal mercy is illustrated through a different symbol for each mercy. The Madonna of Mercy is depicted with the Christ Child and two angels, receiving and protecting the faithful. On the left, a man shows lodgings to two pilgrims, representing hospitality, while another clothes the naked, visiting sick, along with a gravedigger and deacon with lighted torch carrying a corpse, feet visible. The various acts of mercy are emphasized by the lack of lighting, hiding the indiscriminate background, but illuminating the central figures displaying good acts. The diagonal movement of the canvas creates a relation between the divine and earthly life. Caravaggio returns to his naturalistic principles to heighten the realism and readability, as seen with the drop of milk on the poor man’s beard. Similar to many Baroque works employing drama and naturalism, Caravaggio’s work becomes a teaching tool for Counter-Reformation doctrine.
Vodret, Rossella. Caravaggio. Milan: Silvana Editoriale Spa, 2010.
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, David with the Head of Goliath, 1609-10, oil on canvas, 4′ 2″ x 2′ 11,” Borghese Gallery, Rome
Caravaggio’s David with the Head of Goliath returns to the strong contrast in light, but includes the artist’s internal struggle towards the end of his life. David holds the head of Goliath, modeled after the artist as the dead victim. David holds the head toward the viewer, bridging the pictorial space and the physical realm. Caravaggio further heightens the emphasis upon the head and act of holding by only illuminating half of David with the strong contrast in light. As Caravaggio continued to run from the authorities, he identified himself with Goliath, admitting his own guilt and the consideration of his salvation (Harris, 49). David’s compassionate portrayal represents Caravaggio’s hopes of being forgiven by the Church (Harris, 49). The dramatic lighting emphasizes Caravaggio’s internal struggle of redemption.
Harris, Ann Sutherland. Seventeenth-Century Art & Architecture, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. 2008.
Carraci, Assumption of the Virgin
Annibale Caracci, Assumption of the Virgin, 1601, Early Baroque, Patron: Tiberio Cerasi, oil on cypress wood, 8′ 1/2″ x 5′ 1″, Cerasi Chape, S.M. del Popolo, Rome
Carracci’s Assumption of the Virgin resembles a strong contrast to Caravaggio’s reliance upon realism. Carracci’s work, accompanied alongside Caravaggio’s scenes of St. Peter, focuses upon the combination of ancient and modern art influences, while using painting, sculpture, and architecture (Harris, 30). Compared to the dramatic lighting of Caravaggio’s religious scenes, Carracci relies upon the use of light and color to represent presence of the figures, returning to previous generations.
Harris, Ann Sutherland. Seventeenth-Century Art & Architecture, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. 2008.